Synonyms

Several words have nearly the same meaning. Words that have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms. It is important to distinguish between the slight differences in meaning of these words.

The words huge, big, large, vast, immense, and colossal are synonyms. Any of these words could be used to describe something that is not small, tiny, minute, or little.

Yet if you want to be precise, you cannot take one of these words out of a sentence and put another in its place without making the sentence less accurate.

If you said that the crowd at a football match was huge, you would probably mean that there were more people in it than in a big crowd.

Or again, one of the classrooms in your school or college may be larger than your kitchen at home, but to say that is colossal would be silly, for we use that over-worked adjective only to describe something so big as to be out of the ordinary.

In the same way tiny and minute are used to describe things which are very small and not merely not big.

The words work, toil, labor, and drudgery are synonyms, yet by toil we mean hard work, and by drudgery we mean work hard and dull as to be unpleasant.

You must , therefore, be able to distinguish shades of meaning in synonyms, and to know how one synonyms differs from another, so that when you want to use a word you can do so accurately.

Exercises

1.What are the differences in meaning between the words in the following groups.

Nouns
(a)way, route, path, road, direction.
(b)size, bulk, largeness, mass, magnitude.
(c)friend, companion, mate, colleague, neighbor, comrade.
(d)job, work, occupation, trade, employment, profession, business.
(e)vigor, force, energy, power, vitality, spirit, power, strength.
(f)news, tidings, message, report, communication, intelligence.
(g)walk, trip, migration, journey, tour, expedition, stroll, ride, excursion.
(h)wholesaler, seller, salesman, trader, dealer, merchant, retailer, shopkeeper.

Adjectives
(a)careful, alert, cautious, wary, vigilant, watchful
(b)aged, elderly, old, ancient, ripe, antique, timeworn, old-fashioned.
(c)true, real, faultless, exact, correct, accurate, precise, definite.
(d)clever, handy, dexterous, apt, skillful, expert.
(e)evident, obvious, plain, lucid, transparent, bright, clear.
(f)shadowy, dark, obscure, dusky, cloudy, unlit, murky, overcast.
(g)short, brief, concise, terse, compact, pithy, telegraphic.
(h)firm, tough, inflexible, stiff, hard, rigid, unyielding, impenetrable.
(i)peaceful, clam, moderate, smooth, soft, gentle, mild, sober, tranquil
(j)thin, lean, meagre, spare, slight, slim, fine, slender.

Verbs.
(a)begin, start, commence, initiate, undertake, inaugurate, originate.
(b)finish, end, complete, stop, achieve, conclude, close, terminate, discontinue.
(c)think, consider, contemplate, reflect, ponder, mediate, study, muse.
(d)build, make, compose, fashion, forge, fabricate, construct, manufacture, produce,
create.
(e)increase, enlarge, advance, magnify, extend, exaggerate, strengthen
(f)tell, say, speak, talk, utter, chatter, prattle, debate, converse, discuss,
narrate, recount.
(g)look, see, inspect, survey, discover, perceive, witness, visualize, envisage,
recognize, regard, behold
(h)hurry, quicken, rush, haste, speed, fly, accelerate, sprint, gallop.

2.Make up sentences to show that you know the difference between the synonyms in the following pairs:

whole, all; shrewd, clever;
assist, help; cruel, hard-heaarted;
destroy,demolish,plan,scheme;
irritate,annoy;spin, twist;
murder, execute;unique, rare.

3.Give synonyms, as many you can think of, for the following:

Nouns : fight, shout, anger, quarrel, delight, skill, mistake, untruth.
Adjectives: useful, calm, generous, old, easy, fat, big, beautiful.
Verbs : speak, need, talk, select, watch, make, trust, shake

Conjunctions

Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses and are classified as coordinating conjunctions or subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating Conjunctions
The most common coordinating Conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. Note that so and yet may also act as subordinating conjunctions.

Consider the following sentences, each of which has a coordinating conjunction:

She and I are bridge partners.(Coordinating conjunction joining pronouns.)
He or I will stay behind.(Coordinating conjunction joining pronouns.)
The bed in our room or the one in the guest room should be replaced.(Coordinating conjunction joining phrases)
He quickly decided to run for mayor, but just as quickly withdrew.(Coordinating conjunction joining clauses.)
There is enough time to finish the book, for we still have an hour before dinner. (Coordinating conjunction joining clauses)

Other coordinating conjunctions are the so-called correlatives, which occur in pairs: either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, and both....and. The correlatives are used to join sentence elements having equivalent value. Consider the following sentences:

Either you do the dishes now or I will do them later.
Neither my mother nor my father saw much of me from then on.
Not only has the Security Council imposed sanctions, but many countries are suggesting armed intervention.
Not only does she write poetry, but she also writes short stories.
Both sushi and broiled fish were served to the guests.

Subordinating Conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses of less than equivalent value. The most common subordinating conjunctions are after, although, as, as if, as long as, because, before, how, if, in order that, since, so, so that, though, till, unless, until, when, where, wherever, while, why, and yet. The relative pronouns that, what, which, and who also act as subordinating conjunctions.Consider the following sentences.

I will take over the nursing duties after the nurse leaves.
You and I cannot tale all the credit for our success. although we did a great deal of the work.
The Kenners arrived at the party before most of the other guests showed up.
All students have been studying Spanish since they entered third grade.
The sad day will surely arrive when the mortgage interest will increase.
Mickey sat in the library while Sam was out on the tennis court.

Preposition And Prepositional Phrases

A preposition is a word that conveys a meaning of position, direction, time, or other abstraction. It functions to relate its object to another sentence element. A great number of prepositions will be supplied shortly. For now, consider the most commonly used prepositions: at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, and with.
at work, by then, for children, from them, in secret, of value, on top, to you, with us

A prepositional phrase consists of preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the object. In the prepositional phrase by the foremost American athletes, the preposition is by, the object of the preposition is athletes, and the modifiers of the object is the foremost American.

Prepositional phrases are used to modify verb, nouns, pronouns, and adjectives.
Ex.
Modifiers of Verbs
Granny left the child in his crib.(Where did Granny leave the baby? In his crib.)

We keep our disks on the personal computer.( Where do we keep our disks? On the personal computer.)

Modifiers of Nouns and Pronoun
Ex.
She feels the love of her extended family.(Whose love? The love of her extended family.)

They want something by their favorite composer.(What do they want by their favorite composer? Something.)

Modifiers of Adjectives
Ex.
My brothers are young in spirit.(Young in what sense? Young in spirit.)

Her message was simple in content,profound in implication.(Simple in what sense?Simple in content. Profound in implication.)

Commonly Used Prepositions
The following list identifies many commonly used prepositions and provides examples of their use. In addition to the single words that are given, phrases are listed that also function as prepositions.

aboard......................aboard the plane, aboard the bandwagon.
about........................about town, about dogs
above........................above life, itself, above all
according to ..............according to experts,according to convention
across.......................across the street, across our property
after .........................after dinner, after an accident
ahead of ...................ahead of our time, ahead of the mob
alongside.................alongside the float, alongside the building
apart from................apart from her injuries, apart from the reward
aside from................aside from his inaugural address, aside from my own thoughts
among.....................among their objections, among the nations
amid........................amid the crowd, amid our protests
amidst.....................amidst my work, amidst the meeting
as far as ..................as far as Boston, as far as the market

Object of a Preposition
The object of preposition is always in the objective case. The only part of speech that shows case is the pronoun. Subjective: I, you, he, she, it, we, you ,they,; who. Objective: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them; whom. Possessive: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs; whose.


The case of immediate interest here is the objective case. In each of the following examples, the object of the preposition to is a pronoun in the objective case:

They gave their furniture to me.
We will give it to you.
Francis gave the book to him.
We spoke to her.
We offered dog biscuits to it.
They gave money to us.
The minister will soon speak to you.
We will say nothing to them.
Whom did you speak to?

Differentiating Preposition from Other Parts of Speech
Many words that are classified ad preposition, for example, after, but, and since, are also used as other parts of speech: adverbs, adjectives, or conjunctions. The way to determine the part of speech you are dealing with i to examine its role in a sentence. Consider the following sentence:

Boy marched to the blackboard, one after another.(Preposition)
Do not follow after your children.(Preposition)
After dinner, all the men smoked cigars.(Preposition)
She named her son after her father.(Preposition)
Jill tumbled after.(Adverb)
They lived happily ever after.(Adverb)
Does she still take an after dinner drink?(Adjective)
After I find a suitable apartment, I will move all my furniture.(Conjunction)

Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs,adjectives,and other adverbs:

Ex.
She agreed readily.(The adverb readily modifies the verb agreed.)
My mother was really happy.(The adverb really modifies the adjective happy.)
My daughter is completely fearless.(The adverb completely modifies the adjective fearless.)

Adverb may also modify entire clauses:

Ex.
Obviously he is wrong, but I will hear him out.(The adverb Obviously modifies the clause he is wrong.)
Surely the plane will be late,but I will not count on it. (The adverb Surely modifies the clause the plane will be late.)

Adverb may also modify all the rest of a sentence:

Ex.
Perhaps you are the only person in the class who knows the answer to mu question.
Certainly she will find that other attorneys in her department have also been harassed.

Recognizing Adverbs
The adverbs easiest to recognize are those that end in -ly. The only pitfall to avoid is confusing adbverbs tha end in -ly with adjectives that end in -ly.

Remember that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns and that adverbs modify everything else. Thus, when you wish to determine whether you are dealing with an adverb or an adjective,identify the element modified. If it is a noun or pronoun, the modifier is an adjective. If the element modified is any other part of speech, the modifiers is an adverb.(This subject is dealt with further in the next two sections.)

The modifiers in the following sentences are adverbs:

Ex.
She stared hatefully.(The adverb hatefully modifies the verb stared.)

He will be supremely happy when the verdict is announced.((The adverb supremely modifies the adjective happy.)

Eventually they will reach an agreement,but I do not know when.((The adverb Eventually modifies the clause the will reach an agreement.)

Differentiating Adverbs from Adjectives
Many English words function both as adjectives adverbs. As has already been said, the surest way for you to tell whether a word is an adjective or an adverb is to examine the sentence in which it appears and determine what the function of the word is. For this, you must go back to the fundamental distinction between an adjective and an adverb: Adjective modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify everything else.

The following list presents some of the words that are used both as adjectives and adverbs:

bad..............early...............hard..............much...............slow
better...........enough...........high..............near...............smooth
bright...........even................late..............quick..............straight
cheap............fair................little.............right...............tight
close.............far.................loose.............rough..............well
deep..............fast................loud..............second.............worse
doubtless........first...............low...............sharp..............wrong

Many of these words also have forms ending in -ly, among them: badly, brightly, cheaply, deeply, and others. Some people prefer the -ly forms in formal writing, and the -ly forms in many instances are used exclusively in certain idiomatic construction:

Ex.
The bullet hit close to the mark.
Watch them closely.
The team plays hard all the time.
The violinist could hardly flex his fingers.

In both these pairs of sentences, the modifiers close, closely, hard, and hardly perform adverbial functions. Close modifies the verb hit; closely modifies the verb watch. Hard modifies the verb plays; hardly modifies the verb flex. Thus, they are all adverbs.

By way of contrast, consider how close and hard function as adjectives in the following sentences.

Ex.
The work is so close that it strains my eyes.
I think hard times are still ahead of us.

Comparison of Adverbs
Like adjectives, adverbs have three comparative forms-absolute, comparative, and superlative-to indicate greater or lesser degrees of the characteristics described.
Adverbs that are identical with adjectives form their comparatives and superlatives in the same manner, for example, bad, worse, worst; well, better, best, etc. Even when the absolute form of an adverb ends in -ly, the comparative and superlative are identical with the corresponding forms of the adjective: badly, worse, worst.

Adverbs also add er and est to the absolute form to make their comparatives and superlatives:

Ex.
sad, sadder, saddest
sadly, sadder, saddest

Adverbs also employ more and most before the absolute form to make comparatives and superlatives. More and most are commonly used with adverbs of more than one syllable:

Ex.
privately, more privately, most privately
happily, more happily, most happily

Adjectives

Adjectives have two functions:
They modify nouns and pronouns,and they may also be used to complete linking,or copulative,verbs:

Ex.
A happy person faces each new day optimistically.(The adjective happy modifies the noun person)

The last one to finish the race will receive a consolation prize.(The adjective last modifies the pronoun one)

Ruth is content after she finishes a good meal and a full bottle of milk.(The adjective content completes the linking verb is. Such an adjective is called a predicate adjective)

Types of Adjectives
There a three principal types of adjectives: descriptive, limiting, and proper.

Descriptive adjectives name a quality or condition of the element modified: an unhappy marriage, a blue dress, a capable attorney,a broken axle.

Limiting adjectives identify or enumerate the element modified: our table, present company, most people, his fiancee, eight days, second stanza.

Proper adjectives are descriptive adjectives that derive from proper name: Shinto customs, California wine, Chinese checkers, North American rivers.

Comparison of Adjectives
Adjectives have three comparative forms - absolute, comparative, and superlative-to indicate greater or lesser degrees of the quality described.

Absolute.................Comparative.............Superlative
fat............................fatter.........................fattest
fine...........................finer..........................finest
beautiful....................more beautiful............most beautiful
intelligent...................more intelligent..........most intelligent

The comparative form of most adjectives can be achieved in two ways: by adding er to the absolute form or by adding the adverb more.

The superlative form or most adjectives can be achieved in two ways: by adding est to the absolute form or by adding the verb most.

Some adjectives change forms radically to express comparison: good,better,best; bad, worse,worst

Use the comparative form when discussing two items or individuals,the superlative when discussing three or more:

Ex.
Of the two brothers,Fred is the more personable.
Of all his novels, the first was by far the most successful.
Hazel is better swimmer than her brother.
She is the best writer I know.

Use the comparative form when comparing a single item or individuals with a class of items or individuals.

Ex.
Anne was a better student than any of the men in her class.

Our town library has a poorer selection of fiction than any of the libraries in your town.

Adjective Phrases
An adjective phrase is a phrase used to modify a noun or pronoun. Adjective phrases are formed by combining a preposition with a noun or pronoun plus the modifiers pf the noun or pronoun.

Ex.
The sofa in the dressing room needs repairs.(The adjective phrase in the dressing room modifies the noun sofa. The preposition in has room as its object. The noun room is modified by the dressing.)

Anyone in the room can be elected.(The adjective phrase in the room modifies the pronoun Anyone.)

To ensure clarity, place adjective phrases close to the word or words the the phrases modify. In most constructions,this means placing the adjective phrases immediately after the element modified.

Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a clause used to modify a noun or pronoun. like all clauses, adjective clauses consist of subject, verb, modifiers, and object when appropriate.

Ex.
Every alteration that is made between tonight and opening night may create problems for the actors.(The adjective clause that is made between tonight and opening night modifies the noun alteration.)

Anyone who refuses early retirement may live to regret the decision.(The adjective clause who refuses early retirement modifies the pronoun Anyone.)

Pronouns

Pronouns
A Pronouns is a word or words used in place of noun, a noun and its modifiers, or another pronoun. The element replaced is called the antecedent of the pronoun.

Types of pronouns

Personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, we, they, one
Impersonal pronouns: it, they
Relative pronouns: who, which, that, whoever, whichever
Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
Interrogative pronouns: who, which, what, whoever, whatever
Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Intensive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Reciprocal pronouns: each other, one another
Indefinite pronouns: each, either, any, anyone, some, someone, all

Tense

Tense
Tense is the characteristics of verbs that indicates the time of the action or state of being described. There are six tense in English: present, past perfect, past, present perfect, future, and future perfect.

The present tense indicates present action, habitual action, simple future action true for all time.

The past perfect tense indicates action completed before a previous past action.

The past tense indicates action completed in the past.

The present perfect tense indicates action begun in the past that continues in the present.

The future tense indicates simple future action.

The future perfect tense indicates action completed before a future action.

The progressive forms of these tense indicate onging action.

Consider the verb call in all its tenses and both voices.

Present active. I call.
Present passive. I am called.
Present progressive active. I am calling.
Present progressive passive. I am being called.

Past perfect active. I had called.
Past perfect passive. I had been called.
Past perfect progressive active. I had been calling.
(There is no past perfect progressive passive form.)

Past active. I called.
Past passive. I was called.
Past progressive active. I was calling.
Past progressive passive. I was being called.

Present perfect active. I have called.
Present perfect passive. I have been called.
Present perfect progressive active. I have been calling.
(There is no present perfect progressive passive form.)

Future active. I will call.
Future passive. I will be called.
Future progressive active. I will be calling.
(There is no future progressive passive form.)

Future perfect active. I will have called.
Future perfect passive. I will have been called.
Future perfect progressive active. I will have been calling.
(There is no future perfect progressive passive form.)

Verb

Verb
is a word or words that describe the action or state of being of the subject of a sentence or clause. A verb makes s statement about its subject

ex.
Mrs. Jefferson loves her son.
Football players strive for excellence.

Predicate
In a clause or sentence, the predicate is the verb plus its modifiers and objects or complements. When a verb has no modifiers, no objects, and no complements, the predicate is termed a simple predicate. Two verbs that have a single subject are termed a compound predicate.

ex.
The car stalled. (Simple predicate)

The sun shone brilliantly.(Predicate consisting of a verb and its modifiers)

He read the book.(Predicate consisting of a verb and its objects)

They are renegades. (Predicate consisting of a verb and its compliments)

Emma cooks and bakes. (Compound predicate)

Transitive and Intransitive Verb
A transitive verb must have a direct object. An intransitive verb does not have a direct object. Some verbs function transitively and intransitively.

ex.
We devoured dinner.(The verb devoured is transitive, since it has a direct object, dinner)

They studied for many hours.(The verb studied is intransitive, since it lacks a direct object.)

The tree grew for many years even though concrete covered its roots.(The verb grew is intransitive, since it lacks a direct object. The verb covered is transitive, since it has a direct object, roots)

My neighbor grows azaleas.(The verb grows is transitive,since it has a direct object,azaleas.)

Linking Verbs
A linking, or copulative, verb does not take an object. Rather, such a verb joins a subject with its complement. The complement is either a predicate noun or predicate adjective:

ex.
Today I am a man.(The linking verb am link I with man, a predicate noun.)

Now it tastes good.(The linking verb tastes links it with good,a predicate adjective)

The most common linking verbs are be,seem,appear,become,feel,taste,act,sound,and grow.Some of these linking verbs,for example,feel and taste,may also be used transitively:

ex.
I felt ill during dinner.(The linking verb felt links I with ill,a predicate adjective)

I felt the fabric.(The verb felt is transitive,with fabric as its direct objects.)

The cast acted depressed.(The linking verb acted links cast with depressed,a predicate adjective.)

The cast acted the play professionally.(The verb acted is transitive, with play as its direct object.)

Auxiliary Verbs
are used with other verbs to form the tenses, voices, and moods of those verbs. The most common auxiliary verbs are be, do, and have. Less common auxiliary verbs are can, may, will, shall, must, ought, might, could, should, and would. Auxiliary verbs alter the meaning or time of the action of the verb.

Ex.
I am going, I do go, I have gone, I ought to go, I might go, I could go, I should go.
I may go to the rally.(A possibility of action.)
I shall go to the rally.(An intention to undertake a future action.)
I will go to the rally.(Firm intention to undertake a future action.)

Shall and Will
Use shall in the first person (I, We) in asking questions.

Ex.
Shall I leave munch money for you?
Shall we leave the party now?

Use shall in all persons for emphatic statements

Ex
I shall do no such thing
We shall be moved
You shall not be allowed to run for office
They shall not pass!

Use shall in the first person to express future actions or expectations.

Ex
I shall miss the first act because I have to work late.
In all probability, we shall meet you at the gallery.


Use will in the second and third person(you; he, she, it, they) in asking question.

Ex.
Will you join us at the reception?
Will he have enough information for the report?
Will she approve the report when it is in final form?
Will it be the last house we look at?
Will they be willing to fund your work?

Use will in the second and third persons to express future action or expectations.

Ex.
They will manage all right on their own.
You will have a dinner with us as usual, I expect.


Should and Would
Use should to express an obligation or condition

Ex.
I should repaint the living room without charge. (Obligation)
You should pay more attention to your children. (Obligation)
They should leave the apartment in good order. (Obligation)
If we should cut them off without a penny, they may have to go on public assistance.(Condition)
If they should see no merit in the idea, our fellowships will be withdrawn. (Condition)

Use would to express a wish or customary action.

Ex
Would that we had spent more time with him. (Wish)
Would that you had spent your money more wisely. (Wish)
You would always remember to call on Father’s day. (Customary action)
They would turn down any invitation that did not include a full meal. (Customary action)


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Noun

Noun - is the name of a person, place,thing,quality,activity, concept or condition. A noun may perform many functions in a sentence: subject of a verb,direct object of a verb, object of a preposition,object of a verbal (gerund,infinitive,participle),indirect object of a verb, predicate complement, and modifier of another noun.

Subject of Verb
• Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.
• Modern art has many admirers.

Direct Object of a Verb
• The cattle forced the crowd off the road
• Tobacco causes many deaths

Object of a Preposition
• I expect to sail my boat after lunch
• The attendant parked my car in the shade

Object of a Verbal
• Swimming the lake was more than he could manage. (Verbal Swimming, object of the verbal lake)
• All I want now is to see my granddaughters again, (Verbal to see, object of the verbal granddaughters)
• Having lost my way, I decided to wait for help. (Verbal Having lost, object of the verbal way)

Indirect Object of a Verb
• The judge gave her assistant a new assignment. (Verb gave, indirect object assistant)
Predicate Complement
• He is the hottest performer in town. (Verb is, predicate complement performer)
• One problem facing the nation id illiteracy. (Verb is, predicate compliment illiteracy)

Modifier of Another Noun
• The peace talks seem to be getting nowhere. (Noun peace modifies noun talks)
• Combative hockey teams seem intent on fighting instead of skating. (Noun hockey modifies noun teams)

TYPES OF NOUNS

There are two types of nouns: Proper nouns and Common nouns.

Proper noun is the name of s specific person, place, or thing. Capitalize all proper nouns. Capitalize a common noun only when you use it as the first word in sentence.

• Audrey Hepburn will long be remembered for her work on behalf of children
• He was a Democrat when he first went to Washington
• The Statue of Liberty holds out hope to the world

Common noun is the name used for any unspecified member of a class of person, places, qualities, or concepts

• Poets struggle to gain recognition
• Who does not admire children in inner cities who manage to get a decent education
• That building is yet another example of poor urban architecture
• Our principal aim was to nurture democracy in the country

Collective noun may represent a group or a class considered as a unit. In this case, treat the collective noun as singular

• The band played uninspiringly. (The band as a unit)
• The jury was unable to reach a verdict. (The jury as a unit)
• The couple is without a home (The couple as a unit)

A collective noun may also represent a group or a class of individuals considered as individuals. In this case, treat the collective noun as plural.

• The audience are leaving their seats. ( The members of the audience, as individuals, are leaving)
• The couple disagree on almost everything. (Both husband and wife, as individuals, disagree.)
• The remainder are going to be left behind. (The remaining members of a group, as individuals, are going to be left behind.)

Noun Clauses
A noun clause has a subject and verb and functions as a noun. Noun clauses usually introduced bt that, which, who, whoever, whatever, why, where, how, or which.

As subject:
That a daughter can speak so harshly to her mother is difficult to believe.(Subject of is.)
Why you ask such questions befuddles me. (Subject of befuddles.)

As object:
We insist that our goevernment look after the needy.(Object of the insist.)
They said that they would change their ways.(Object of said.)

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